[33], The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands, especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom, when those regions were under pharaonic control. Hermeticism, for instance, derived from the tradition of secret magical knowledge associated with Thoth. [103] Human sacrifices found in early royal tombs were probably meant to serve the pharaoh in his afterlife. [219] In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris, his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout. Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world, except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC, when official religion focused exclusively on an abstract solar deity, the Aten. [32], In the fully developed afterlife beliefs of the New Kingdom, the soul had to avoid a variety of supernatural dangers in the Duat, before undergoing a final judgement, known as the "Weighing of the Heart", carried out by Osiris and by the Assessors of Maat. The most famous fully intact surviving ancient Egyptian ship is the ‘ Khufu Ship ’, found sealed in the Pyramid of Giza. [149] Egyptian texts often refer to deities' true, underlying forms as "mysterious". [153] Because of the close connection between these goddesses, they could both wear the cow-horn headdress that was originally Hathor's alone. The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way. [201] Thus, the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate, although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well. At other times it joined gods with very different natures, as when Amun, the god of hidden power, was linked with Ra, the god of the sun. [11] According to a different definition, by Dimitri Meeks, nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual. He points out that in any given period many deities, even minor ones, were described as superior to all others. Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom. [77] A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r, meaning "cleaning of the mouth", to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual,[78] while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris in a moment of distress, connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity. The populace began to believe that the gods were much more directly involved in daily life. [49], Another important mythic motif was the journey of Ra through the Duat each night. [99] However, while the cult lasted, the living sometimes wrote letters asking deceased relatives for help, in the belief that the dead could affect the world of the living as the gods did. Here are some of the most interesting amulets used throughout the known history of Egypt. Some of these images, such as stars and cattle, are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times, but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities. [138][139] In any case, Atenism's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace, and Akhenaten's successors returned to traditional beliefs. The Egyptians developed many types of boats. An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment, without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on. [85], Individual Egyptians also prayed to gods and gave them private offerings. [102] Because it was believed that the deceased would have to do work in the afterlife, just as in life, burials often included small models of humans to do work in place of the deceased. Find the best Aquarium Decorations at the lowest price from top brands like Penn-Plax, Biorb & more. The importance of oracles as a means of decision-making grew, as did the wealth and influence of the oracles' interpreters, the priesthood. Ancient Egyptian Artifacts . They could establish themselves in new cities, or their range of influence could contract. Ancient Egypt, 2nd Intermediate Period, c. 1750 - 1570 BC. [16] Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic,[19] and more current ones, such as Siegfried Morenz' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment, are difficult to prove. Some non-royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly. The resulting god, Amun-Ra, thus united the power that lay behind all things with the greatest and most visible force in nature. [168], Some inanimate objects that represent deities are drawn from nature, such as trees or the disk-like emblems for the sun and the moon. Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete,[236] and Amun's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region. In it, a high-ranking priest, or occasionally the pharaoh, washed, anointed, and elaborately dressed the god's statue before presenting it with offerings. Such prayers are rare before the New Kingdom, indicating that in earlier periods such direct personal interaction with a deity was not believed possible, or at least was less likely to be expressed in writing. The Egyptians sought to maintain Ma'at in the cosmos by sustaining the gods through offerings and by performing rituals which staved off disorder and perpetuated the cycles of nature. Because deities were the upholders of maat, morality was connected with them. Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for 3,500 years. Deities often form male and female pairs. This resulted in a complex pantheon in which some deities remained only locally important while others developed more universal significance. [48] Over the course of Egyptian history, they came to be regarded as fundamentally inferior members of divine society[49] and to represent the opposite of the beneficial, life-giving major gods. Egyptian funeral rituals were intended to release the ba from the body so that it could move freely, and to rejoin it with the ka so that it could live on as an akh. People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines, for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites. Some information is also provided by allusions in secular texts. The pharaohs’ tombs were meant to preserve their bodies and souls. Therefore, although the Egyptians recognized that the pharaoh was human and subject to human weakness, they simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was incarnated in him. [128] Isis grew more popular as a goddess of protection, magic, and personal salvation, and became the most important goddess in Egypt. 19. [97], Once the mummification process was complete, the mummy was carried from the deceased person's house to the tomb in a funeral procession that included his or her relatives and friends, along with a variety of priests. An ancient Egyptian miniature boat from 2000 BC that appears to be an ancient toy but was in fact a representation of crossing the waters to the other side. [131], Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided. [164] Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow—the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women—some are given unusual, symbolic skin colors. 2600 B. C.) and Senwosret III s boats (ca. [135], Traces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its influence on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798 and their seeing the monuments and images. Because temple libraries contained numerous magical texts, great magical knowledge was ascribed to the lector priests, who studied these texts. Nevertheless, the withdrawal of state support for the other deities severely disrupted Egyptian society. [119] The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it. In different eras, various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society, including the solar deity Ra, the mysterious god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. It had existed since the creation of the world, and without it the world would lose its cohesion. Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism, which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one, and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities. [5], The depictions of the gods in art were not meant as literal representations of how the gods might appear if they were visible, as the gods' true natures were believed to be mysterious. Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation. Vowels are generally omitted from written text. Middle Kingdom pharaohs continued to build pyramids, but the popularity of mastabas waned. [215], Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque-shaped shrine. Nevertheless, the myth makes it clear that Osiris is murdered, and other pieces of evidence like the appearance of divine corpses in the Duat indicate that other gods die as well. At many sacred sites, the Egyptians worshipped individual animals which they believed to be manifestations of particular deities. Temples themselves are also inscribed with such texts, often accompanied by illustrations. [220], Personal interaction with the gods took many forms. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities. Once grown, Horus fought and defeated Set to become king himself. [4] It could include gods adopted from foreign cultures, and sometimes humans: deceased pharaohs were believed to be divine, and occasionally, distinguished commoners such as Imhotep also became deified. Some of these groups contain a specific, symbolically important number of deities. [52], The gods' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts. According to paintings and drawings found, Egyptians engaged in everything from fishing to river boating on the river Nile. [136] Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism, which totally excludes belief in other deities. [74] Deities' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over. [38] Despite their diverse functions, most gods had an overarching role in common: maintaining maat, the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess. [83], Popular religious practice included ceremonies marking important transitions in life. This is probably due to cultural restrictions on depiction of nonroyal religious activity, which relaxed during the Middle and New Kingdoms. Much of what they experienced in the world around them was unknowable and frightening. One of the more common combinations was a family triad consisting of a father, mother, and child, who were worshipped together. [55] In myth, the gods behave much like humans. Originally the Egyptians buried their dead in the desert, where the arid conditions mummified the body naturally. Humans' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society. [128] Horus had many forms tied to particular places, including Horus of Nekhen, Horus of Buhen, and Horus of Edfu. One such group, the Ennead, assembled nine deities into a theological system that was involved in the mythological areas of creation, kingship, and the afterlife. The red symbol on the left shoulder, which can easily be mistaken for a swastika, is actually an ancient Greek symbol for holiness, while at the bottom, the boat of Sokar (a form of the Egyptian sun god) is flanked by jackals. Unlike the earlier books, it often contains extensive illustrations, or vignettes. This collection of writings is known as the Coffin Texts, and was not reserved for royalty, but appeared in the tombs of non-royal officials. [205] Conversely, the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans. [83] Yet in addition to temples, the populace also used separate local chapels, smaller but more accessible than the formal temples. [58] The spells appear in differing arrangements and combinations, and few of them appear in all of the pyramids. In the New Kingdom, when other nations were under Egyptian control, foreigners were said to be under the sun god's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were. Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities, including their height and eye color. He was syncretized with Ra, the long-established patron of kingship and his temple at Karnak in Thebes became Egypt's most important religious center. [199], Thoth, as the overseer of time, was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods. Because of the gods' multiple and overlapping roles, deities can have many epithets—with more important gods accumulating more titles—and the same epithet can apply to many deities. [70], Gods were linked to specific regions of the universe. [84] Other religious practices sought to discern the gods' will or seek their knowledge. Whereas, in earlier times, newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs, Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives. [241] Roman emperors, like Ptolemaic kings before them, invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority, inside and outside Egypt. Used in this way, ideograms are referred to as determinatives. [72] The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant. These trends undermined the traditional structure of society and contributed to the breakdown of the New Kingdom. For all ancient people, the world was filled with mystery. Deities' diverse appearances in art—as animals, humans, objects, and combinations of different forms—also alluded, through symbolism, to their essential features. It centered on the Egyptians' interactions with many deities believed to be present in, and in control of the world. The beliefs and rituals now referred to as "ancient Egyptian religion" were integral within every aspect of Egyptian culture. Likewise, the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt. [16], The Egyptians had elaborate beliefs about death and the afterlife. [225], Prayer and private offerings are generally called "personal piety": acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god. Each region of Egypt originally had its own patron deity, but it is likely that as these small communities conquered or absorbed each other, the god of the defeated area was either incorporated into the other god's mythology or entirely subsumed by it. With variations, this plan was used for most of the temples built from then on, and most of those that survive today adhere to it. [116] The texts are an extremely important source for understanding early Egyptian theology. [75] The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity. [12] During the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC) Amun held this position. "[157] Divine headdresses, which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods' heads, are another important indicator. The ancient Egyptian goddess of love, sexuality, fertility and war, Anat came from Canaan or Syria originally. [81] Some epithets eventually became separate deities,[82] as with Werethekau, an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning "great enchantress", which came to be treated as an independent goddess. In these states, it was believed, people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them. [179] Yet, according to royal ideology, temple-building was exclusively the pharaoh's work, as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead. In keeping with this belief, the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins. [224] Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers, and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help. [92], Female deities also had a violent aspect that could be seen either positively, as with the goddesses Wadjet and Nekhbet who protected the king, or negatively. [134] In late antiquity, the Christian conception of Hell was most likely influenced by some of the imagery of the Duat. They were the veteran soldiers who … They were steered by two oars and had only one square sail. Funerary texts that depict Ra's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him. People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles, run by temples, that were supposed to convey gods' answers to questions. The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth. [98] Afterwards, relatives or hired priests gave food offerings to the deceased in a nearby mortuary chapel at regular intervals. Only in the New Kingdom did professional priesthood become widespread, although most lower-ranking priests were still part-time. When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC), they elevated Thebes' patron gods—first the war god Montu and then Amun—to national prominence. Amun, the supreme god, was increasingly seen as the final arbiter of human destiny, the true ruler of Egypt. [67], The earliest Egyptian temples were small, impermanent structures, but through the Old and Middle Kingdoms their designs grew more elaborate, and they were increasingly built out of stone. The diverse pantheon ranged from gods with vital roles in the universe to minor deities or "demons" with very limited or localized functions. Throughout the linear passage of time, a cyclical pattern recurred, in which Ma'at was renewed by periodic events which echoed the original creation. Other animals were selected for much shorter periods. [91] Individuals also frequently employed magical techniques for personal purposes. Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet, the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat, and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events. 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