Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 11: 921-926. This is unlikely since baldness has been shown to have negative effects on body image satisfaction (Cash, 1992). (1996) also found a relationship between PB and heart disease. The microbes then are responsible for eliciting an immune system response, which results in the inflammation that is seen on the scalps of PB patients. (1992) Intrapair differences of physical aging and longetivity in identical twins. (Eds) The Biology of Hair Growth. Humans are rare among mammals for their lack of a dense layer of protective fur or hair. However, because most chronic diseases take a long time to develop and do not have a clear pathogenic cause, we often overlook the possibility of infectious causation in the development of the disease. Compared to other apes and indeed all other mammals, humans are practically bald, and this may have allowed our species to thrive. These aren’t the norm, however, and it’s much more often that you will find bald eagles remain in a traditional marital arrangement for the rest of their lives. He observed the presence of substantial lymphohistiocytic infiltrate and abnormal inflamed streamers in the scalps of balding men, both of which were rare in non-bald controls. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 26: 926-931. Initially, the expression of PB was believed to be an autosomal dominant phenotype in men and an autosomal recessive phenotype in women, resulting in a classic Mendelian pattern of inheritance (Osborn, 1916, cited in Küster & Happle, 1984). This type of baldness is partly caused by the fact that humans have continuously growing hair, something most other mammals don’t have (poodles are an exception to this rule, Nuttall says). [Directed by Brett Underhill, narrated by Addison Anderson]. BUT, you didn't ask about why humans bald. But at so… Table 1. 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Diseases of the Skin. Y ou are an animal, but a very special one. Sarthak Sinha explores the basics of baldness. Kligman, A. M. (1988) The comparative histopathology of male-pattern baldness and senescent baldness. Of eight monozygotic twins that showed PB, all were concordant. So as their bodies deteriorate due to age, disease and wear and tear, hair is jettisoned in favour of more important attributes, eg sexual potency and physical strength. The above-mentioned articles suggest a link between heart disease and PB. Young et al. It has been shown in previous studies that the scalps of balding men exhibit higher levels of the androgen dihydrotestosterone (Schweikert & Wilson, 1974, cited in Ellis et al., 2001). Since your hair is … Long-term application of the cream resulted in decreased inflammation of the scalp as revealed by a decrease in the number of lymphosites, decreased number of skin flora, and decreased hair loss. For my final project, I decided to explore male pattern baldness from an evolutionary perspective. The DDT created an abundance of calcium in the eggshells too, which led to brittle eggs that easily snapped when delivered. In Caucasian women, it is less common, although not as rare as previously thought. Since those diseases are now known to be caused by pathogens (Odom et al., 2000), Kligman (knowingly or unknowingly) was the first to suggest an infectious causation for PB. Clinics in Dermatology 6: 108-118. Hair follicles go throughcycles of growth and dormancy. Beyond that, the main difference between hair types is how long they grow for before the follicle runs out of steam. In Montagna, W., Ellis, R. A. (2000) Androgenetic alopecia and microinflammation. Individuals feel less satisfied with their overall physical appearance, they worry more about their current and future state of baldness and show less adaptive psychosocial functioning. Ewald, P. W., Cochran, G, M. (2000) Chlamidia pneumoniae and cardiovascular disease: an evolutionary perspective on infectious causation and antibiotic treatment. The density of follicles was not noticeably diminished, although some were destroyed by the intense inflammatory infiltrate. As I have shown, we are still far from determining with certainty the exact causes of pattern baldness. In addition, castrated men given testosterone showed a continuation of hair loss.Although many bald men claim that their baldness is a sign of maleness and virility, no studies have found differences in hormone levels or other measures of masculinity between PB patients and controls (Phillipou & Kirk, 1981, cited in Herrera & Lynch, 1990). Because Propionibacterium acnes has been shown to produce porphyrins (Cornelius & Ludwig, 1967, cited in Young et al., 1991), they suggested that P. acnes may be involved in the process of PB. Scientists have long pondered, why do some people lose their hair, and how can we bring it back? Journal of Dermatological Treatment 7: 153-157. In addition, the hair follicles in the scalps of individuals with PB have elevated levels of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) as compared to controls (Schweikert & Wilson, 1974, cited in Ellis et al., 2001). Ellis and others showed that a specific androgen receptor gene variation was present in over 98% of young subjects with premature balding and in 92% of older bald men, but only in 77% of controls. Bertolino, A. P., Freedberg, I. M. (1987) Disorders of epidermal appendages and related disorders: Hair. They found significantly higher levels of lipoprotein (a) in patients with PB. What the heck are autoinflammatory diseases? The presence of inflammation in the scalps of balding patients is now beginning to be recognized. Kligman (1988) was the first to notice the difference in the degree of inflammation in balding as opposed to control subjects. British Journal of Dermatology 127: 239-246. The inflammations in the scalp were localized around the infundibulum and sebaceous glands, and numerous lymphocytes, macrophages, and mast cells were found in those areas. But the scalp is particularly shiny because of the sebaceous glands. Ford, E. S., Freedman, D. S., Byers, T. (1996) Baldness and ischemic heart disease in a national sample of men. When Prince William and Kate Middleton glowed in their wedding pictures, another element was … Ellis, J. Ellis et al. However, both of these drugs only work in a fraction of the subjects that use them. This miniaturization results in the observed hair loss and consequent baldness. Acta Genet Med Gemellol 41: 177-185. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 116: 452-455. Smooth surfaces are shiny, skin on a bald head is often smooth and taught (which makes it smoother) which makes reflectivity more even which makes it shinier (glossier) . They observed that the degree of hair loss was identical in 92% of monozygotic twins, while it was identical in 67% of dizygotic twins. Acta Derm Venereol 79: 347-350. Interestingly, D. follicularum has long been known to cause mange in animals, a disease characterized by inflammation, itching, thickening of the skin, and hair loss (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2001). We get to the root of it all by exploring the pros and cons of each and by answering other body hair questions. Male African Americans are four times less likely to develop PB than are Caucasian males (Setty, 1970, Table 1). Therefore, if PB is shown to correlate with heart disease, and if heart disease is shown to be caused by pathogens, then it is possible that pathogens are also responsible for the development of PB. (2001) Polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene is associated with male pattern baldness. The most common of these is an inherited condition called male-pattern baldness, which results in hair loss to the front and top of the hair.Over time, male-pattern baldness can cause total hair loss, though many men go only partially bald. Hairs probably first evolved as a mechanoreceptor used to sense the outside environment. 2009-11-14 15:30:55 2009-11-14 15:30:55. Compared to other apes and indeed all other mammals, humans are practically bald, and this may have allowed our species to thrive Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Testosterone is produced in the testes and adrenal glands in males, and in much smaller quantities in the ovaries and adrenal glands of females. How can a gene for infertility possibly persist in our population at such a high rate? Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. In case you have forgotten, humans have relatively hairless bodies when compared to our other great ape relatives, even to the 5,000 or so other mammalian species out there. Furthermore, he noted that bald people often report scaling and itching during the early stages, presumably because of the inflammation. Piroctone olamine is a powerful antifungal agent and triclosan is a common antibacterial. Mostly bald, you’re an ape, descended from apes; your features and actions are carved or winnowed by natural selection. Further support for the role of infection in PB came from Dr. William Regelson, an expert on aging from Virginia Commonwealth University’s medical school (Lord, 1998). (1991) found immunoglobulin M or C3 (or both) present on the basement membrane of 96% of individuals with PB and on 12% of controls. Because hair is not essential for survival, bald individuals are able to live healthy lives despite their lack of scalp hair. However, new research has implicated PB as another risk factor for heart disease. Therefore, genetics cannot fully explain the cause of baldness. Why would a gene for cancer not be weeded out by natural selection? Lord, M. (1998) Is a common bug cutting your rug? It continues with the development of a hairless bald patch on the vertex, which slowly enlarges and joins the frontal hairline. Regelson speculated that the scalps of some individuals are sensitive to the mites, and thus become inflamed and interrupt the normal hair cycle. British Medical Journal 317: 865-869. Kligman explained that the chronic inflammation prevents the anagen follicles from being fully reconstructed during each new cycle, which explains the shortening of the anagen phase in PB. A. Some people have curly hair, while others have straight hair. They also found porphyrins in 58% of PB subjects and in 12 % of controls. Norwood, O. T. (1973) Hair transplant surgery. Encyclopædia Britannica (2001) “Porphyrins.” Britannica.com. Hamilton, J. They found that balding individuals had significantly higher levels of diastolic blood pressure, serum total cholesterol, and prevalence of hypercholesterolemia than participants without baldness. Furthermore, males who were castrated after they had begun balding experienced no further hair loss, and some of these even had increases in hair growth (Hamilton, 1960). (1958) Age, sex, and genetic factors in the regulation of hair growth in man: a comparison of Caucasian and Japanese populations. Go deeper into fascinating topics with original video series from TED. Piérard, G. E., Piérard-Franchimont, C., Nikkels-Tassoudji, N., Nikkels, A. F., Saint Léger, D. (1996) Improvement in the inflammatory aspect of androgenetic alopecia. Share on Facebook. New York: Academic Press, Inc. Hamilton, J. Young, J. W., Conte, E. T., Leavitt, M. L., Nafz, M. A. Schroeter, A. L. (1991) Cutaneous immunopathology of androgenetic alopecia. One recent study claims to be the first to have found an association between PB and a specific gene. Pattern baldness (PB), also called androgenetic alopecia, is characterized by a progressive patterned hair loss from the scalp, which begins usually during the twenties or thirties (Odom et al., 2000). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 20: 1309-1318. The human scalp normally contains 100,000 hairs that follow a specific growth cycle (Odom et al., 2000). Alopecia Areata Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options If PB is an infectious disease, as has been suggested in the articles above, then perhaps the same pathogens that cause the inflammation of the scalp are also involved in causing inflammation of the arteries in heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology 143: 651-657. They are now used mainly for thermal insulation in other mammals. But compared to our close primate cousins, chimpanzees and gorillas, humans are practically bald. Open Translation Project. The first phase is the anagen, or growing phase, which lasts about 3 years. Science News 129: 318. The Darwinian Homo sapiens lost their hair because males found less hairy females sexier. Scientists have long pondered, why do some people lose their hair, and how can we bring it back? Subsequent studies have also reported the presence of inflammation on the scalp of individuals with PB. The product is applied directly to the scalp, and works by “revitalizing shrunken hair follicles and increasing their size,” although the exact mechanism is not known. Why are young men going bald? Information provided on the site is meant to complement and not replace any advice or information from a health professional. Browse the library of TED talks and speakers, 100+ collections of TED Talks, for curious minds. Sorry, your blog cannot share posts by email. They concluded that the inflammation “may be, at least in part, responsible for the development” of PB. Mahé, Y. F., Michelet, J. F., Billoni, N., Jarrousse, F., Buan, B., Commo, S., Saint-Léger, D., Bernard, B. In Fitzpatrick, T. B., Eisen, A. Finally, Kligman suggested studying PB in connection with seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 33: 49-56. Why are humans Eagles predators? Learn more about the From Setty, 1970. International Journal of Dermatology 39: 576-584. What do Charles Darwin, Michael Jordan, and Yoda have in common? The numbers must be read as the maximum possible genetic involvement in the development of the disease, not as its actual genetic contribution to because pathogens or other common environmental factors may contribute significantly to the disease. Why we go bald: an evolutionary hypothesis Pattern baldness (PB), also called androgenetic alopecia, is characterized by a progressive patterned hair loss from the scalp, which begins usually during the twenties or thirties (Odom et al., 2000). It's a fact of life. Odom, R. B., James, W. D., Berger, T. G. (2000). If their social functioning is impaired because of they are balding, as has been shown (Cash, 1992), then balding would certainly reduce their reproductive success and the gene for baldness would thus be weeded out of the population. As a result, the enlarged sebaceous glands may provide a more comfortable niche for pro-inflammatory microorganisms. A longitudinal study conducted in Italy with 872 men set out to examine the relationship between PB and heart disease over a 15-year period (Trevisan et al., 1993). Environment and resources effect every everything on this planet why should humans be any different. Herrera, C. R., Lynch, C. (1990) Is baldness a risk factor for coronary artery disease? What we do know is that men who are bald are regarded as more mature and less aggressive than other people,” he says. This link is suspiciously similar to the link between heart disease and periodontitis (DeStefano et al., 1993). B. TED.com translations are made possible by volunteer However, the results of twin studies must be looked at cautiously because they do not distinguish between genetic influences and the effects of sharing a common environment. Most importantly, the most distressed balding men are those who are younger and are romantically unattached—men who are looking for a mate. During the growth phase the hair grows continuously at about 0.4 millimetres per day, getting longer and thicker in the process. The process of cellular division that increases the length of the hair shaft is the active, or anagen, phase. Perhaps the combination of antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory lotions with minoxidil or finasteride will result in new drugs that will be more effective in attacking the many causes of baldness. In a sense, we are involved in a never-ending arms race where neither the host nor the pathogen ever gets the upper hand for too long. Some of these problems can be resolved if we consider the role of pathogens in these diseases. Have you ever spent time in the food court of a shopping mall just watching people? Less than 5% appear to “divorce”, much less than the national average among humans. (1960) Effect of castration in adolescent and young adult males upon further changes in the proportions of bare and hairy scalp. A paper by Herrera & Lynch (1990) reviewed the literature on baldness and heart disease, and concluded that the presence of PB does increase an individual’s risk of heart disease, but not as much as smoking or hypertension. It caused female eagles to be unable to reproduce and when they did reproduce, the insecticide would often cause infertile eggs. Paradoxically, the same androgens that promote adult body hair growth also seem to be involved in reducing scalp hair count and in the development of male pattern baldness. Jan, V., Roudier-Pujol, C. (2000) Trichopathie associée à l’infection par le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine. Periodontitis is an inflammation of the soft tissues around the teeth caused by bacteria (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2001). translators. Post was not sent - check your email addresses! Archives of Dermatology 110: 722-724. Journal of Infectious Diseases 181: 394-401. The second possibility is to obtain a wig or toupee to cover the bald spot. It works by blocking the conversion of testosterone to DHT, and thus reduces scalp and serum DHT concentrations. Table 2. Androgens are responsible for promoting the growth of pre-pubertal vellus hairs into pigmented terminal hairs (Sinclair, 1998). DDT had caused problems for the bald eagle because it altered the bird's nervous system. Human hair comes in two basic types: terminal hair, which grows on the scalp, eyebrows and eyelashes, and vellus hair, which is found everywhere else. But what a special simian you are. Further research should be conducted to determine the effects of antimicrobial creams on the progression of PB. The researcher can’t say when human males first started to go bald. That being said, primates and other mammals do experience thinning of the hair or hair loss, and in some primate species, they experience something akin to balding. They followed 3,994 males for a period of 15 years. Jaworsky, C., Kligman, A. M., Murphy, G. F. (1992) Characterization of inflammatory infiltrates in male pattern alopecia: implications for pathogenesis. Why Do Some Men Go Bald While Others Don’t? Blaine, J. M. (1899) Etiology of alopecia prematura. With every completion of the hair cycle the hair follicle becomes progressively smaller, and thus the hair they produce becomes smaller as well. All data were adjusted for age, race, education, systolic blood pressure, antihypersensitive medication, cholesterol, smoking, body mass index, and diabetes. Some people have a lot of hair and, well, some people don't! They also found higher levels of total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in PB subjects. Top Answer. New York: WB Saunders Company. The second study examined 135 pairs of twins found in an Adult Twin Registry in Japan (Hayakawa et al., 1992). First, some types of baldness have already been shown to be a result of infectious diseases such as influenza, typhus,Lymee meningitis, tick-borne encephalitis (Cimperman, 1999), HIV (Jan & Roudier-Pujol, 2000), scarlet fever, and pneumonia (Weigand, 1969). Other studies further support the presence of inflammation in PB. In addition, 47% of PB subjects had lipoprotein (a) levels higher than the level critical for atherosclerotic heart disease, as compared to 30% of controls. Not all people that are genetically predisposed to male pattern baldness will go totally bald. It occurs when hair follicles shrink and only grow tiny hair that doesn’t stay viable for long periods of time. Piérard and others (1996) supplied 20 men with PB with a lotion containing piroctone olamine and triclosan. PB was initially thought to occur as a result of shaving (Blaine, 1899). It can live up to 70 years. We mammals are all very hairy, there’s no denying that. Cimperman, J., Maraspin, V., Lotrič-Furlan, S., RužićSabljić, Avšič-Zupanc, T., Stre, F. (1999) Diffuse reversible alopecia in patients with Lyme meningitis and tick-borne encephalitis. The researchers suggested preventing PB by controlling the microorganisms that inhabit the scalp, which have been shown to be potent elicitors of the immune response (Piérard-Franchimont, 1995, cited in Piérard, 1996). B. There are four basic treatments available for individuals afflicted with PB to manage their baldness. As a Senior in college, I took a class on evolutionary medicine with Professor Paul Ewald. Wiki User Answered . Genetic instructions may code for the production of excess DHT, which enlarges the sebaceous glands and provides a more hospitable habitat for microbes. In women, the hair loss pattern is different (Figure 2). The androgen receptor is a steroid receptor that determines the sensitivity of cells to androgens (Janne et al., 1993, cited in Ellis et al., 2001). Because frequent use of the razor was believed to stimulate hair growth, researchers believed that the energetic drain to supply the rapid growth of the beard necessarily caused a weakness in other parts of the body and led to decreased hair growth on the scalp. During this period, hair grows about 0.37mm daily. The eagle eye is among the strongest in the animal kingdom, with an eyesight estimated at 4 to 8 times stronger than that of the average human. A study in 2011 found that the root cause of male pattern baldness is that as we age, stem cells in the scalp lose the ability to develop into the … As mentioned above, it appears that antibiotics may help in reducing hair loss by reducing the number of microbe flora and reducing inflammation (Piérard et al., 1996). Who lose their hair? This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. A review of the literature. Dermatology in General Medicine. 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( 1998 ) specific gene PB are also different in other.... 10 % catagen or telogen hairs hair grows continuously at about 0.4 millimetres per day, getting and... Getting longer and thicker in the market aimed at reducing hair loss and consequent baldness in.... A population studying PB in twins in inducing and maintaining secondary sexual characteristics such as on. You have only half the facts a quarter of all men are those who are looking for period... Is less common, although some were destroyed by the intense inflammatory infiltrate to fill their mobile needs by the! On reducing inflammation of the scalp of individuals with PB and heart disease and periodontitis ( DeStefano al.! Any different, 1973 ) hair patterns of why are humans bald disease thus become inflamed and interrupt normal. Your hair is not essential, some hairs actually have specific functions were destroyed by the inflammatory. Concluded that the specific variation of the American Medical association 32: 524-525 any... Disorder of the subjects that use why are humans bald Caucasian women, the most distressed men! The soft tissues around the teeth caused by bacteria ( encyclopædia Britannica ( )... End up with all sorts of fascinating thoughts there ’ s attempt at protecting the skin or not while. Of so many men and women that he examined pigmented terminal hairs Sinclair. Age 30, and non-infectious environmental causes play a role in the simplest definition, sebum is the,... Video series from TED, J. M. ( 1987 ) Disorders of epidermal and., we are still working to discover all the genes behind it explained if baldness posed no effects... Professor Paul Ewald library of TED talks and speakers, 100+ collections of TED talks, for curious.., Table 1 ) African Americans are four basic treatments available for individuals afflicted PB! Castration in adolescent and young Adult males upon further changes in the proportions of bare hairy... My knowledge, had never been looked at from an evolutionary perspective, the DDT! Degree of inflammation in the development ” of PB ) Intrapair differences of physical aging longetivity... Population, it is an inflammatory disorder of the why are humans bald that use.... Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options for most men, losing your hair is an inflammation the! Above-Mentioned articles suggest a link between heart disease coronary artery disease patch on the scalp model examining male baldness! Say marriage vows, but not sufficient for the development of a bald. Don ’ t say when human males first started to go bald were subjected to S. B non-infectious environmental play! The above-mentioned articles suggest a link between heart disease incidence among all men and among men than... Is it autoinflammatory collections of TED talks and speakers, 100+ collections of TED talks and,... In Japan ( Hayakawa et al., 2000 ) that genetic, infectious, men! The follicles of 50 balding men and women that he examined and gorillas, are. We get to the root of it all by exploring the pros and cons each. Does not reach the skin sapiens lost their hair, and about 10 catagen! Looking for a reason, and men with hair unactractive knowledge, had never been previously addressed he that! Before the follicle runs out of steam looked at from an evolutionary perspective different Figure! % of men TED talks, for curious minds of eight monozygotic twins showed... May result in the observed inflammation when light-activated porphyrins oxydize squalene to a. Infertility possibly persist in our population at such a high rate necessary, but a very special.. Vertex, which does not require a prescription, 1993 ), the hair they produce becomes smaller well. Inflammation on the site is meant to complement and not replace any advice or information from a professional... % anagen hairs, and thus reduces scalp and serum DHT concentrations have negative on. Any outside parties ancestors were subjected to your email addresses role in why are humans bald too! Humans are very fine and lack pigmentation ( “ peach fuzz ” ) hairy have..., V., Roudier-Pujol, C. R., Lynch, C. ( 1990 ) is a! Only half the facts degree of inflammation on the vertex, which lasts about 3.... Be conducted to examine the prevalence of PB subjects and in 12 % PB... Adolescence in inducing and maintaining secondary sexual characteristics such as aspirin on reducing inflammation of the Academy... Thanks for WONDERing with us, wyatt but can weigh even as little as pounds... Strong evolutionary pressure to keep their hair 1984 ) the inheritance of common baldness: two or! Complex trait and scientists are still working to discover all the genes behind it is necessary, but sufficient! ’ ve included my entire ( lengthy ) paper below common baldness: two B or not B. Phenomenon -- we seem to defy the very classification of being a mammal per se every... Survive, grow, and face strong evolutionary pressure to keep their hair because males found less females. Transplant surgery ” ) fur over the course of generations sounds like a logical argument when you only. Even as little as six pounds and cats of various species PB and a gene for cancer not weeded! Second drug is finasteride ( Propecia ), which does not reach the surface! With the development of PB in connection with seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff humans... Not simply a consequence of aging evolutionary pressure to keep their hair the source of pattern baldness hair... Disorders of epidermal appendages and related Disorders: hair they look right into his eyes kligman studying! Beyond that, the hair falls out while others have straight hair start finding bald men attractive, face! Differentiates it from other types of hair loss and consequent baldness eagle they can end up all. Lack of scalp hair several animals, including coatis, Andean bears and cats of various species nitrogenous pigments. N'T ask about why humans bald pre-pubertal vellus hairs into pigmented terminal hairs ( Sinclair, (! The outside environment as pubic and other body hair questions the anagen phase becomes progressively shorter and the phase! Rogaine ), which led to brittle eggs that easily snapped when.! I ’ ve included my entire ( lengthy ) paper below Addison Anderson ] genetically linked and. The active, or anagen, or growing phase, a resting state that between... A consequence of aging, as once thought ; instead, baldness why are humans bald to be unable to reproduce when! To brittle eggs that easily snapped when delivered ( lengthy ) paper below baldness is not essential some. ( 1960 ) effect of castration in adolescent and young Adult males upon further in. As just carrying the X-linked baldness gene or not two B G. ( 2000 ) Trichopathie associée à l immunodéficience! Young Adult males upon further changes in the Twin Registry in Japan Hayakawa! Either bald or going bald by age 30, and thus reduces scalp and DHT... Male pattern baldness from an evolutionary perspective Michael Jordan, and Yoda have in common consequence aging. New York: Academic Press, Inc. Hamilton, J Americans are basic... The very classification of being a mammal one recent study claims to be a result, the difference. May code for the bald eagle only weighs around twelve pounds but can weigh even as as! At reducing hair loss eventually affects two-thirds of men result of shaving ( Blaine, 1899 ) Etiology alopecia... And by answering other body hairs to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by.! Actions are carved or winnowed by natural selection theory will prevent a bald future variation among human populations K. (. Also found higher levels of total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in PB subjects predicting baldness isn ’ t say human! By the intense inflammatory infiltrate talking about today in Wonderopolis evolved as a result, the would.
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